− | areas do not refer to any specific courses which can be organised in various ways. The biggest<br>challenge in conducting a uniform teaching program in various universities is their capability to<br>organise laboratory exercises in a sufficient way. Some universities having radiochemistry teaching<br>are not able to handle any alpha emitting radionuclides and some universities cannot even deal with<br>any radioactive material. Another big problem is the variation of radiation detection and<br>measurement apparatuses.<br>1. Radioactivity, radionuclides and radiation – principles of nuclear physics to radiochemists<br>Aims:<br>To teach NRC students the basic knowledge in nuclear physics in order to understand the nature<br>of radioactivity, reasons for stability/instability of nuclides, modes of radioactive decay<br>processes, types of radiation emitted in radioactive decay processes and the rate of radioactive<br>decay.<br>Topics:<br>- structure of atom and nucleus, nucleons<br>- nuclides, radionuclides, isotopes, isobars, nuclide charts<br>- types and origin of radionuclides (natural decay series, primary primordial radionuclides,<br>secondary natural radionuclides, cosmogenic radionuclides, artificial radionuclides,<br>formation and occurrence)<br>- stability of nuclei (stable nuclides vs. radionuclides, masses on nucleons, mass deficiency,<br>binding energy, binding energy per nucleon, proton to neutron ratio, energy valley –<br>semiempirical equation of mass – beta parabola, fission, fusion)<br>- modes of radioactive decay<br>2<br>o fission (process, spontaneous vs. induced, energetics, formation of fission products,<br>fission yields, fissionable/fissile, nature of fission products)<br>o alpha decay (process, energetics, alpha recoil, decay to daughter’s ground state,<br>decay to daughter’s exited state, formation of alpha spectrum)<br>o beta decay (processes in beta minus decay, positron decay and electron capture,<br>energetics, beta recoil, neutrino/antineutrino, distribution of decay energy, formation<br>of beta spectrum, beta parabola for odd/even nuclides, secondary processes (gamma<br>decay, formation of Auger electrons and X-rays, annihilation of positrons)<br>o internal transition (gamma decay, internal conversion, energetics, gamma recoil,<br>metastable isomeric states, formation of gamma spectrum)<br>- rate of radioactive decay, half-life, activity units, activity concentrations vs. specific activity,<br>activity vs. count rate, determination of half-lives, equilibria in successive decay processes<br>- isotopic exchange - isotope effects<br>- principles and uses of nuclear power reactors<br>2. Radiation safety (radiological protection)<br>Aims:<br>To teach the students the basic knowledge on the health effects of radiation, principles of<br>radiation safety, radiation dose and dose rate measures, estimation and calculation of radiation<br>doses, EU and national legislation, safe practices in radionuclide laboratories and safe handling<br>and disposal of radioactive waste from radionuclides laboratories. This topic area, including<br>related exercises, should be completed before the students are allowed to do further exercises<br>with radionuclides.<br>Topics:<br>- types of radiation and their absorption processes by matter, range<br>- radiation safety measures and their units (absorbed dose, equivalent dose, effective dose<br>etc.)<br>- effects of radiation on DNA in cells<br>- health effects of radiation<br>o direct somatic effects<br>o stochastic effects (cancer, genetic effects)<br>- principles of radiation safety (justification, optimization, protection of individuals)<br>- radiation safety organisations and their recommendations and regulations<br>o EU, IAEA, ICRP<br>o national authorities, laws, decrees and recommendation, licensing<br>- estimation and measurement of radiation doses<br>- radiation safety practices, safe working habits in radionuclide laboratories and with radiation<br>sources<br>o sealed sources, protection against external exposure<br>o open sources, protection against internal exposure<br>- safe handling and disposal of radioactive waste from radionuclide laboratories<br>- measures during/after exceptional events<br>3. Detection and measurement of radiation<br>Aims:<br>To teach the students basic knowledge on interaction processes of radiation with matter as a<br>basis for radiation detection, basic instrumentation in radiation detection, detector types and<br>formation of electric pulses in them, interpretation of various spectra, energy resolution, energy<br>and efficiency calibrations. Since ICP-MS is becoming a standard method for the measurement<br>3<br>of many radionuclides basics on mass spectrometric measurement of radionuclides should also<br>be at least shortly covered.<br>Topics:<br>- interaction processes of radiation with matter (ionization, scattering, excitation, formation of<br>electromagnetic radiation, nuclear reaction)<br>o alpha<br>o beta<br>o gamma<br>o neutrons<br>- basic instrumentation in radiation measurements (detector, preamplifier, amplifier, ADC,<br>MCA)<br>- pulse counting vs. spectrometry<br>- pulse rate counting efficiency activity<br>- factors affecting counting efficiency (detector efficiency, absorption, geometry, selfabsorption,<br>backscattering, dead-time)<br>- energy resolution<br>- detectors for radiation measurement:<br>o gas ionization detectors<br>o solid and liquid scintillators<br>o semiconductor detectors<br>- statistics and error calculations in radiometric measurements<br>- interpretation of gamma, alpha, beta and X-ray spectra<br>- energy and efficiency calibrations<br>- liquid scintillation counting<br>- radiation imaging (autoradiography, fission and alpha track counting etc)<br>- background formation and subtraction<br>- quality control in radiation measurements<br>- mass spectrometric measurement of radionuclides<br>4. Chemistry and analysis of radionuclides<br>Aims:<br>To teach basic knowledge on the chemical properties of most important radionuclides and the<br>chemical methods used for their separation from various matrices. To teach how chemical<br>properties and speciation affect the behaviour of radionuclides in natural and anthropogenic<br>systems.<br>Topics:<br>- chemistry (oxidation states, solubilities, complex formation, hydrolysis, compounds),<br>nuclear characteristics (half-lives, decay modes, emitted radiation), measurement techniques<br>of most important alpha and beta emitting radionuclides in the environment and in nuclear<br>waste<br>o natural radionuclides (U, Th, Ra, Po, Pb)<br>o fission products (Sr, Tc, I, Cs etc.)<br>o activation products (Ni, Fe, Co, Mn)<br>o tritium and radiocarbon<br>o transuranics (Np, Pu, Am, Cm)<br>- special characteristics of the chemistry and separations of radionuclides (trace<br>concentrations, radiation, use of carriers, adsorption of radionuclides)<br>4<br>- needs and principles of radiochemical separations (alpha, beta and EC decaying<br>radionuclides with no detectable gamma emissions, gamma emitting radionuclides of very<br>low activities)<br>- analytical methods used in radionuclide separations (precipitation, ion exchange, solvent<br>extraction, extraction chromatography)<br>- yield determination and counting source preparations<br>- separation of long-lived radionuclides for mass spectrometric measurement<br>- sampling and sample pretreatment methods<br>- speciation analysis of radionuclides<br>- hot-atom chemistry<br>5. Nuclear reactions and production of radionuclides<br>Aims:<br>To teach the students basic knowledge on nuclear reactions and production of radionuclides.<br>This topic area also gives basic skills in calculation of radionuclide production yields in particle<br>irradiations.<br>Topics:<br>- interaction processes of particles with nuclei<br>- types of nuclear reactions and models<br>- coulombic barrier<br>- energetics of nuclear reactions<br>- kinetics of nuclear reactions<br>- cross-sections<br>- excitation functions<br>- induced fission<br>- types of particle accelerators<br>- production of radionuclides in cyclotrons<br>- production of radionuclides in reactors<br>- radionuclide generators<br>6. Exercises (laboratory and calculation exercises) (at least 10 cu)<br>Calculation exercises:<br>Aims:<br>To give the students skills to calculate activities, their uncertainties, calculate or estimate<br>radiation doses, calculate irradiation yields and to use nuclide charts / tables of nuclides.<br>Topics:<br>- use of internet nuclide chart / table of nuclides<br>- calculation of activities based on half-life data<br>- calculations of irradiation yields based of cross sections and projectile flux<br>- calculation and measurement of gamma irradiation dose from a point source<br>- calculation of required shielding for radiation protection<br>- uncertainty calculations in activity measurements<br>- conversion of count rates to activities<br>Laboratory exercises:<br>5<br>Aims:<br>To give the students skills for safe handling of radionuclides and sealed sources and to safely<br>dispose of radioactive waste from radionuclide laboratories, use of radiation dose meters and<br>instruments to detect contamination, basic skills to detect and measure gamma and beta<br>radiation using common radiation measurement techniques and to separate radionuclides from<br>aqueous and solid samples using common radiochemical separation methods.<br>Topics:<br>- detection of planar contamination for radiation safety<br>- use of radiation dose meters for radiation safety to measure total dose and dose rates<br>- measurement of radiation with a Geiger tube (absorption of beta radiation etc)<br>- measurement of radiation with a LSC<br>- measurement of radiation with a gamma spectrometer - interpretation of gamma spectra<br>- separations of radionuclides by using<br>o precipitation/coprecipitation<br>o ion exchange chromatography<br>o solvent extraction and/or extraction chromatography<br>Recommended laboratory exercises:<br>Below a more comprehensive list of laboratory exercises is given as a recommendation.<br>- detection of planar contamination for radiation safety<br>- use of radiation dose meters for radiation safety to measure total dose and dose rates<br>- measurement of radiation with a Geiger tube (e.g. determination of absorption curve for beta<br>radiation, determination of dead-time, effect of counting geometry on observed counting<br>efficiency)<br>- determination of half-life (determination of the half-life of a short-lived radionuclide, such<br>as137mBa, obtained from a generator)<br>- single channel exercise with a solid scintillation detector (measurement of the gamma<br>spectrum of a gamma emitting radionuclide, such as 137Cs, measurement of a standard and<br>an unknown sample on the selected peak region, calculation of the activity of the unknown<br>sample, determination of energy resolution)<br>- gamma spectrometry with a solid scintillation detector (energy calibration, determination of<br>a sample containing few unknown radionuclides, identification of these radionuclides,<br>interpretation of the gamma spectrum)<br>- gamma spectrometry with a semiconductor detector (energy calibration, determination of a<br>sample containing unknown radionuclides, identification of these radionuclides,<br>interpretation of the gamma spectrum)<br>- alpha spectrometry (separation of an alpha emitter from environmental or waste sample<br>using radiochemical separation techniques, preparation of the counting source, measurement<br>of the alpha spectrum, calculation of the activity)<br>- beta counting with LSC (quenching curve determination, separation of a beta emitter from<br>environmental or waste sample using radiochemical separation techniques, preparation of<br>the counting source, measurement of the sample for the activity determination)<br>- radiochemical separations using precipitation, ion exchange, solvent extraction and<br>extraction chromatography<br>o separation of beta emitting radionuclides (e.g. 90Sr)<br>o separation of alpha emitting radionuclides (e.g. 234,235,238U)<br>o separation of EC decaying radionuclides (e.g. 55Fe)<br>6<br>Optional studies (5 cu):<br>Optional studies consist of several (3-5 cu each) modules on various application fields of nuclear<br>and radiochemistry. Examples of such courses are given below. The fields of the courses are<br>recommended to closely link with the actual research field/s of the unit giving the teaching so that<br>the teaching and research are closely connected and best available researchers are giving the courses<br>at their specialty areas. If possible the courses may also contain laboratory exercises.<br>7. Chemistry of the nuclear fuel cycle<br>Topics:<br>- uranium ores<br>- extraction of uranium from ore minerals<br>- mill tailings and their disposal<br>- purification of raw uranium products<br>- enrichment of 235U<br>- production of uranium fuel for power reactors<br>- use on uranium fuel in power reactors<br>- power reactor types<br>- water chemistry of nuclear power reactors<br>- types of nuclear waste and their formation processes<br>- management and final disposal of nuclear waste<br>- reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel<br>- decommissioning of nuclear facilitities<br>- behaviour of nuclear waste in geological final repositories<br>8. Radiopharmaceutical chemistry<br>Topics:<br>- production of radionuclides<br>o in cyclotrons<br>o in nuclear reactor<br>o with radionuclide generators<br>o radionuclidic purity<br>o target chemistry<br>- radiopharmaceutical chemistry<br>o types of organic molecules and other compounds to be labeled<br>o labeling chemistry of 11C<br>o labeling chemistry of 18F<br>o radioiodinations (123I and 124I)<br>o labeling chemistry of metal radionuclides (68Ga, 111In, 64Cu, 99mTc)<br>o radiochemical purity<br>- quality control and regulatory issues<br>- PET and SPECT imaging<br>o instrumentation<br>o pharmacokinetics and modeling<br>- applications in<br>o diagnostics (oncology, cardiology, neurology and psychiatry, gene expression and<br>cell trafficking)<br>o drug development<br>o medical research<br>o therapeutics<br>7<br>9. Environmental radioactivity – radioecology<br>Topics:<br>- description of environmental compartments (geosphere, biosphere, atmosphere)<br>- sources of radionuclides in the environment<br>o natural<br>o artificial<br>- behaviour of radionuclides in<br>o the air<br>o natural waters<br>o soils and sediments<br>o biota<br>- speciation and tracer techniques<br>- mobility and bioavailability studies<br>- environmental impact and risk assessment<br>- transfer processes of radionuclides in the environment and in food chains<br>- modelling of transfer processes<br>- countermeasures and preparedness<br>10. Chemistry of actinides and transactinides<br>Topics:<br>- natural actinides<br>- production/formation of actinides in nuclear explosions, nuclear reactors and accelerators<br>- electronic structure<br>- ionic radii<br>- oxidation state<br>- major chemical forms<br>- disproportionation<br>- hydrolysis and polymerisation<br>- complex formation<br>- oxides and other important compounds<br>- chemistry of U, Th, Np, Pu and Am<br>- speciation of actinides<br>- separations<br>o analytical<br>o industrial (PUREX etc)<br>- production of transactinides - extension of the periodic table<br>- chemical properties of the transactinides<br>11. Chemistry of radionuclides in geosphere related to final disposal of spent nuclear fuel or<br>high-level waste<br>Topics:<br>- management of spent nuclear fuel (SNF)<br>- reprocessing of nuclear fuel, production of high-level waste (HLW)<br>- encapsulation of SNF/HLW<br>- geological disposal of SNF/HLW<br>- dissolution/leaching of radionuclides from SNF/HLW<br>8<br>- forms of radionuclides in SNF/HLW<br>- forms of dissolved radionuclides in the repository environment<br>- analytical methods for radionuclide speciation<br>- functions and long-term behaviour of buffer materials (e.g. bentonite)<br>- migration of radionuclides in geosphere<br>- sorption of radionuclides in minerals<br>- diffusion of radionuclides into geological matrix<br>11. Radiation chemistry<br>Topics:<br>- Irradiation methods<br>o Types of irradiation sources and devices<br>o Dosimetrics<br>o Effects of irradiation geometry, thickness of the target etc.<br>o Use of data basis and related computer programmes<br>- Reactions in radiation chemistry in various materials<br>o Basic reactions, formation of intermediates, excited states, ions, electrons and<br>radicals<br>o Reaction of intermediates, formation of stable products<br>o Radiation chemical yields<br>o Kinetics of radiolysis<br>o Reactions in water and water solutions, polymers, metals, nuclear fuel, nutrients,<br>cells etc.<br>- Analytical methods used in radiation chemistry<br>- Application of radiation chemistry<br>o radiation sterilization of medical equipment<br>o radiation sterilization of food stuffs<br>o polymerization and polymer functionalization<br>o etc.<br>12. Nuclear and radioanalytical methods<br>Topics:<br>- Radioimmunoassay (RIA)<br>- Neutron activation analysis (NAA) – instrumental and radiochemical<br>- Isotope dilution analysis<br>- Radiodating methods (14C-dating, 210Po-dating etc.)<br>- Radiometric titration<br>- Use of nuclear and radioanalytical methods in industry
| + | #[[Optional Topic 1 (for MSc degree)|Chemistry of the nuclear fuel cycle]] |